Recent studies suggest that emperor penguin populations will decline in future decades due to climate change [1]– [6]. Current projections suggest that the world population will halve before 2052 [3] with more northerly colonies, above 70°S being lost entirely [6]. This has led the IUCN to re-list the species from “Least Threatened” to “Near Concern” [7]. The primary reason cited for this predicted decline is the species’ reliance on sea-ice, a habitat that is expected to decrease in future years [8], [9]. Sea ice is important to the species in two ways; firstly as a breeding platform and secondly as a foraging environment. A decrease in sea-ice distribution will negatively impact food webs [10], reducing numbers of Krill ( Euphausia superb), and the higher trophic levels which feed on Krill such as glacial squid ( Pleuragramma antarcticum); two species which compose the majority of the emperors diet [11]. A decrease in food availability may negatively affect survival, breeding success, recruitment and therefore population size.

Emperor penguins tend to be quite resilient, but I don’t know how long that resilience can hang on given the extreme changes we’ve seen,” she said. Jenouvrier S, Caswell H, Barbraud C, Holland M, Stroeve J, et al. (2009) Demographic models and IPCC climate projections predict the decline of an emperor penguin population. Proceedings on Natl Acad Sci U S A 106; 1844–1847. Jenouvrier S, Barbraud C, Weimerskirch H (2005) Long term contrasted responses to climate of two Antarctic Seabird species. Ecology 86; 2889–2903. Penguins that either live or breed in Oceania are the little penguin, erect-crested penguin, Fiordland-crested penguin, Snares Island penguin, yellow-eyed penguin, and royal penguin. The Fiordland, Snares Island, and yellow-eyed are all native to New Zealand.

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The blue penguin, ( Eudyptula minor), also called little penguin, little blue penguin, or fairy penguin, are the smallest of the penguins. Adults average about 10 to 12 inches in length and weigh between 2.2 and 3.3 pounds, with males being slightly longer and heavier than females.

The only other penguin that lives in Antarctica is the Adélie penguin. These birds are ice-dependent and rely on the ice for foraging. There are currently over seven million individuals, and they are listed as Least Concern. Subantarctic Islands The waters around and beneath the sea ice are important to the penguins as an area for feeding and the ice itself is essential as a place for the animals to rest, to shelter during their annual molt and to escape from predators. But the loss of sea ice, due to global heating, threatens the habitat of these penguins, while ocean acidification is diminishing the supply of krill, a key food source. The colonies Fretwell observed aren’t large enough for this failed season to have a lasting impact on the species’ overall population, LaRue said. The bigger fear is that this collapse will turn out to be a bellwether for repeated failures in other colonies. In some cases it’s possible the sea broke up into smaller floes or under the feet of the penguins,” he said.Similarly, in Argentina, intense and frequent storms are affecting the Magellanic penguins. A 2014 study found that rainstorms and extreme temperatures were the leading causes of death for young penguins from 1983 to 2010. Over the same period, penguin numbers dropped by 20% while the number of storms rose during each nesting season. Most penguin species of penguins are monogamous, where one male breeds only with one female during a mating season. Some female penguins may have one to three partners in one season and some males may have one or two partners. The study, published in the journal Communications Earth & Environment, observed the sea ice breaking apart from late October to early December at colonies at Verdi Inlet, Smyley Island, Bryant Coast and Pfrogner Point.

Foreign predators, such as foxes, dogs, and cats, are also threats to penguins. These predators often eat penguin eggs or harass breeding pairs, and in some cases, kill the penguins. In Australia's Middle Island, fairy penguin populations plummeted after red foxes were introduced and began to prey on the penguins. Ensconced on the ice, emperor penguins have largely avoided human efforts to hunt them, overfish their prey or encroach on their territory.Penguins face several threats to their populations, such as climate change, oil spills, illegal fishing, foreign predators, and plastic pollution. About two-thirds of the penguin species are listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List.